Research Proposal Social Work Essay

Document 1 of 1 Southern China talk fest a hot air blow-out Author: van der Kamp, Jake ProQuest document link Abstract (Abstract): Yes, they had plans, 30,000km of new superhighways fanning out from Guangzhou and 10,000km of new railway lines with trains speeding at 200km per hour to {hellip} well {hellip} ahem {hellip} but let us have no talk here of the mbarrassment Shanghai has suffered with Just a short hi-tech line to its airport. Not to worry. AsiaWorld-Expo is not being built to showcase Hong Kong products or designs. It will tout mainland wares in competition with several even bigger centres in the mainland. There is one Just across the border, big and empty and hungry for business. Clearly there was a call on AsiaWorld-Expo here to Justify its existence and it has heeded the call. In the first year of operation the centre will contribute a $2. 8 billion economic return, says the advertorial, again and again, in headlines, captions and testimonials. I think I have warned you before that â€Å"economic return† is pure magic. Take a number, any number, wave your wand, and you can have any other number you want, in this case 3. 67. Research, yes, diligent economic analysis, has proved to AsiaWorld- Expo that every dollar spent at its facility will, poof, create another $3. 67 spent elsewhere in Hong Kong. Links Linking Service Full text: ON PAGE 3 of this newspaper yesterday we discussed the hopes of 1 1 aspirants to a crowning achievement of commercial success and career satisfaction. No, I am not referring to the photograph at the top of the page of 11 Miss Hong Kong ontestants pictured in swimsuits at a waterfall in Kenya, although it was definitely more absorbing and probably more meaningful. I had in mind (when that mind could be distracted from the photo) a wodge of print underneath about a hot air blow-out from nine mainland provinces plus Hong Kong and Macau in what is termed the Pan- Pearl River Delta forum. It was the third day running in which we provided this evidence of why some trees should be left to grow in the forest rather than be turned into newsprint. Did you know that Guangdong party boss Zhang DeJiang would like to see his rovince turned into a key world manufacturing base, Hong Kong into an international business services centre and Macau into a gambling tourism hub? I understand that Mr Zhang also wants Marco Polo to visit China and hopes that Christopher Columbus will soon discover America. You probably saw some of the television coverage with one blue- suited lookalike after another taking turns at the podium to tell us to great applause that the sea is wet and the desert is dry or messages of equal revelation. Interspersed was so much self-praise that you would think this was Delia School of Canada. But yes, they had plans, 30,000km of new superhighways fanning out from Guangzhou and 10,000km of new railway lines with trains speeding at 200km per hour to {hellip} well {hellip} ahem {hellip} but let us have no talk here of the embarrassment Shanghai has suffered with Just a short hi-tech line to its airport. Stop me, however. Did not the word come down from Beijing recently that a halt must be called to big infrastructure projects in order to prevent the economy from overheating? I fully recognise that the further south you go in the mainland the less weight that Beijing’s edicts carry and I now that these big plans are still meant only to occupy time at talking shops. But surely a nod to central authority was required here. If we were to be so cavalier in Hong Kong about central government directives, they might call it subversion. Here is an idea for you, fellows. If you really want southern China to prosper, then implement all the promises Page 1 of 3 you made when entering the World Trade Organisation and do it as soon and as fully as possible. Stay off the podiums, spend no money but open your provincial economies and success will come your way. It is all you need to do and if you do not o it, then the story will continue to be what it has been so far – Hong Kong and the Ten Dwarves. And as to that photo, fourth from the left for the crown and second from the right for Miss Photogenic. There you nave my picks and let us be gratetul that those 1 1 not in the picture stayed fully clothed. HOT AIR MERCHANTS are not only to be found across the border. On Tuesday we carried a full-page advertorial for AsiaWorld- Expo, the new airport exhibition centre that is scheduled to open in December next year. You know the story. This was something first mooted for construction by the private ector at a cost of less than $1 billion. The fgure has now risen to $2 billion and it is to be picked up by the public purse. No, pardon me, the private sector can put in another $2 billion if it wants. Uh-huh. The people who run the big exhibition centre on the Wan Chai waterfront are none too happy with all this. They worry that there is not enough business to go round and that we are cannibalising earlier investments in the exhibition trade. Not to worry. AsiaWorld-Expo is not being built to showcase Hong Kong products or spent elsewhere in Hong Kong. It may be true. Here I come to spoil the magic, owever. If we instead spent that dollar on something else, it would create this same multiplier effect and, if we spent it to better use, that multiplier would be higher than 3. 67. The advice that your mother gave you has not been improved by voodoonomics. Spend your money as wisely as you can if you want the greatest benefit to yourself. The appeal to voodoonomics should only confirm to you that the money is not well spent. Publication title: South China Morning Post Pages: 18 Number of pages: O Publication year: 2004 Publication date: Jun 4, 2004 year: 2004 Publisher: South China Morning Post Ltd.

Morality and Ethics

Morality and Ethics Morality and ethics are terms often used as if they have the same meaning. At other times, they are used as if they have no relationship to one another. I think most people realize ethics and morality have something to do with the concepts of good and bad. However, English is not like French, which has the Academic Fantasies acting as its linguistic jury – establishing what proper French is. English changes at the impulse of the crowded. One can bomb, and that's bad, but if one is the bomb, and that's good.The word â€Å"morality† has been co-opted by groups, such as the Moral Majority, making us think morality only deals with acts these religious groups think aren't proper, or are therefore immoral. The meanings of the terms â€Å"ethics† and â€Å"morality† can be differentiated based on their origins in ancient Greek and Latin, respectively. As a result, words that come into the English language from the Greeks often have meanings th at are primarily philosophical study, while the Latin-derived words imply â€Å"doing the thing. Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos – moral character or custom. Morality comes from the Latin word moralist – custom or manner. The words both deal with the customs or the manner in which people do things. Their modern meanings relate to the way people act – either good or bad. Morality, strictly speaking, is used to refer to what we would call moral conduct or standards. Morality is looking at how good or bad our conduct is, and our standards about conduct. Ethics is used to refer to the formal study of those standards or conduct.Sometimes, one refers to the study of conduct as moral philosophy, but that is less common than just saying â€Å"ethics. † One might say that morality is ethics in action, but in the end, the two terms can be used interchangeably. The study of ethics or moral philosophy can be divided into three broad areas: descriptive, normat ive and analytical or met ethics. Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the fundamental issues of practical decision making, and its major concerns include the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong.The terms ethics and morality are closely related. We now often refer to ethical judgments or ethical principles where it once would have been more common to speak of moral judgments or moral principles. These applications are an extension of the meaning of ethics. Strictly speaking, however, the term refers not to morality itself but to the field of study, or branch of inquiry, that has morality as its subject matter. In this sense, ethics is equivalent to moral philosophy.Although ethics has always been viewed as a branch of philosophy, its all-embracing practical nature links it with many other areas of study, including anthropology, biology, economics, history, politics, sociology, and theology. Yet, ethics remains distinct from such disciplines because it is not a matter of factual knowledge in the way that the sciences and other branches of inquiry are. Rather, it has to do with determining the nature of normative theories and applying these sets of principles to practical moral problems.Virtually every human society has some form of myth to explain the origin of morality. In the Louvre in Paris there is a black Babylonian column with a relief showing the sun god Shamash presenting the code of laws to Hammurabi. The Old Testament account of God giving the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mt. Sinai might be considered another example. In Plato's Protagoras there is an avowedly mythical account of how Zeus took pity on the wretched humans, who, living in small groups and with insufficient teeth, weak claws, and lack of speed, were no match for the other beasts.To make up for these deficiencies, Zeus gave humans a moral sense and the capacity for law and justice, so that they c ould live in larger communities and cooperate with one another. There is some difficulty, already known to Plato, with the view that morality was created by a divine power. In his dialogue Euthyphro, Plato considered the suggestion that it is divine approval that makes an action good. Plato pointed out that if this were the case, we could not say that the gods approve of the actions because the actions are good. Why then do the gods approve of these actions rather than others?Is their approval entirely capricious? Plato considered this impossible and so held that there must be some standards of right or wrong that are independent of the likes and dislikes of the gods. Modern philosophers have generally accepted Plato's argument because the alternative implies that if the gods had happened to approve of torturing children and to disapprove of helping one's neighbors, then torture would have been good and neighborliness bad. That morality should be invested with all the mystery and po wer of divine origin s not surprising. Nothing else could provide such strong reasons for accepting the moral law. By attributing a divine origin to morality, the priesthood became its interpreter and guardian, and thereby secured for itself a power that it would not readily abandon. This link between morality and religion has been so firmly forged that it is still sometimes asserted that there can be no morality without religion. According to this view, ethics ceases to be an independent field of study. It becomes, instead, moral theology.

Assignment †OUMH1203 English for Written Communication- SEP 13 Essay

ASSIGNMENT SUBMISSION AND ASSESSMENT ______________________________________________________________________________ OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SEPTEMBER 2013 ______________________________________________________________________________ INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS 1.This assignment contains TWO (2) questions that is set in the language of the printed module for the course. 2. Your assignment should be typed using 12 point Times New Roman font and 1.5 line spacing. 3.Your assignment should be between 500 to 800 words excluding references. The number of words should be shown at the end of your assignment. Do not copy the assignment question and instructions to your answer. 4. You must submit your assignment BY MAIL to fes.assignments@villacollege.edu.mv by 18:00 hrs. You are advised to keep a copy of your submitted assignment for personal reference. 5.You can submit your assignment ONCE only in a SINGLE file. 6. Your first assignment must be submitted on 27th October and the second assignment on 10th November. Submission after 1800 hrs on this date will be accepted as LATE SUBMISSION. 10% of your assignment marks will be deducted for each delayed day. 7. You should not copy another person’s assignment. You should also not plagiarise another person’s work as your own. EVALUATION This assignment accounts for 50 % of the marks for the course mentioned and shall be assessed based on the Rubrics or Answer Scheme. You would be informed of the assignment mark before the Final Semester Examination commences. PLAGIARISM : MARKS DEDUCTION Warning: The submitted assignment will undergo a similarity check. If plagiarism is detected, marks would be deducted as follows: Assignments with 10 – 30 % overlap with others: 20% deduction from the total marks scored. Assignments with more than 30% overlap with others: Zero mark would be given. ASSIGNMENT QUESTION This assignment consists of TWO parts. PART A: IN CLASS ASSESSMENT_ (INDIVIDUAL TASK-30%) From the list of topics below you need to choose any THREE topics and this must be done in class during your tutorial sessions. Each of these essays carries 10% of the total marks. Each essay should be approximately 500-800 words long. a) In many countries, old people are sent to live in old-age homes where there are nurses to look after them. Sometimes governments pay for this care. Who should be responsible for our old people? Use specific reasons and details to explain your choice. b) The Expectancy Theory of Motivation by Victor H. Vroom suggests that an individual’s perceived view of an outcome will determine the level of motivation. How can this theory be applied in the Maldivian classrooms to improve the performance of secondary students? c) Though not out of choice, the current situation requires students to join evening classes to complete their tertiary education at colleges and universities. What are the advantages and disadvantages of attending classes in the evening? d) Co-education is the current system followed in Maldivian schools. While some think students study better in single-sex schools, others believe they need to be mixed for various reasons. In your opinion, what is the best system for the Maldivian schools? Justify your opinion with specific reasons and details. PART B: GROUP TASK (20%) You need to complete these TWO tasks in groups of 3 or 4. Work in groups of three or four people. Choose TWO of the topics given below. Write a research essay on each of your chosen topic. Your research essay carries 10% of the total marks each. Each essay must be between 500 to 800 words long. . a) International research has found numerous benefits which apprenticeship brings for those apprentices who complete their programme. How important is a national level apprenticeship programme for the Maldivians? Write a report on this including recommendations to improve the current situation. b) The customs and traditions of a country help to maintain its uniqueness. It is believed that many customs and traditions of the Maldivians are dying out due to globalisation. Write a report based on the impact of globalisation on the Maldivian customs and traditions. c) The number of motor vehicles imported to the Maldives is increasing at an alarming rate. Write a report based on the potential transportation problems  of Male’ in 15 years’ time, and provide suggestions to overcome them. d) Many believe heavy exposure to TV carnage during childhood leads to imitation of what they see on TV, acceptance of violence as normal, desensitization to real people’s suffering and arousal by images on television, triggering violent responses. Write a report on how critical this issue is in the Maldives? Include recommendations to overcome this problem in the future. Thank you and Good luck! ____________________________________________________________________________ END OF PAGE

Choose a topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Choose a topic - Essay Example These movements not only struggled to receive formal recognition by the Kennedy administration through legislation, but also needed equal access to all benefits of the burgeoning American economy. Consequently, this essay intends to explain how assassination of Martin Luther king Jr. was a major blow to black movements in America and parts of the world characterized by racial discrimination and segregation. Evidences to support arguments in the essay are quoted from two primary sources namely Martin Luther King Jr., Letter from Birmingham Jail written in 1963 and Robert F. Kennedy’s Speech on the Assassination The black movements were at their prime in mid-19th Century, a time when racial discrimination and segregation was at its worse. During this period, Martin Luther King was the pioneer of the strategy and vision of a non-violent campaign by black movements against racism. His strategy argued that it was the moral responsibility of people to break unjust laws. As he notes, â€Å"In any nonviolent campaign there are four basic steps: collection of the facts to determine whether injustices exist; negotiation; self-purification; and direct action. We have gone through all these steps in Birmingham. There can be no gain saying the fact that racial injustice engulfs this community. Birmingham is probably the most thoroughly segregated city in the United States. Its ugly record of brutality is widely known.† (The King Center 1). Moreover, Assassination of Martin Luther King was a sad occurrence to white people alike. White people also participated in civil rights movements in the 1960s when they expanded their grievances to include equality of all in society. During the 1960s, many whites were also discriminated in accessing the benefits realized from the expanding American economy. As a result, the readily joined Martin Luther King Jr.’s strategy of the nonviolent campaign, and this is noticeable in

Branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target Essay

Branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target marketing and positioning in international tourism - Essay Example Tourism Australia is a statutory body subject to the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 (CAC Act). This recognises the commercial focus of the new body and the need for it to operate flexibly in a commercial environment." The expenditure of tourist dollars by international visitors has the same economic effect for a country as selling products by export in international markets. Attracting international visitors is, therefore, encouraged by most countries around the world-especially by their governments and major tourist service providers such as airlines, hotel chains, major tourist attractions and tourist events. With increasing international travel, due to technological innovations in transportation and global communications, the competition for international tourists is increasing and, therefore, applying marketing principles and techniques to destinations has become a growing area of marketing practice. Of particular relevance to the international marketing of destinations are branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target marketing and positioning. Australia is a long-haul destination from many of the large tourist markets. ... ive skills and knowledge of four separate organisations: the Australian Tourist Commission; See Australia; the Bureau of Tourism Research and Tourism Forecasting Council. The main objectives of Tourism Australia under the Tourism Australia Act 2004 are to: Influence people to travel to Australia, including for events; Influence people travelling to Australia to also travel throughout Australia; Influence Australians to travel throughout Australia, including for events; Help foster a sustainable tourism industry in Australia; and Help increase the economic benefits to Australia from tourism. Tourism Australia is a statutory body subject to the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997 (CAC Act). This recognises the commercial focus of the new body and the need for it to operate flexibly in a commercial environment." The expenditure of tourist dollars by international visitors has the same economic effect for a country as selling products by export in international markets. Attracting international visitors is, therefore, encouraged by most countries around the world-especially by their governments and major tourist service providers such as airlines, hotel chains, major tourist attractions and tourist events. With increasing international travel, due to technological innovations in transportation and global communications, the competition for international tourists is increasing and, therefore, applying marketing principles and techniques to destinations has become a growing area of marketing practice. Of particular relevance to the international marketing of destinations are branding and promotion strategies, market segmentation, target marketing and positioning. Australia is a long-haul destination from many of the large tourist markets. Therefore, the

Retail strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Retail strategy - Essay Example The five changes include, Infrastructure, innovation, Knowledge and trust relationships between the supplier, retailer, and the customer. To validate the reason for a critical evaluation on Dawson's statement is simply to say that the growing retail industry with a powerful attraction for minor retailers proves to be death trap. This is mainly because of the increased competition and the changing conditions in the economy and consumer behaviour. However, the business of retail proves to be threatening for manufacturers creating brands and trying to sustain brand image and brand loyalty as they squeezed by the so- called retailer. In a book by Lars Thomassen, et., al (2006, pg. 1) 'Retailization' begins by saying "We have moved from the age of the brand to the age of the retailer" - a shift that has led many brands to a near chronic state of constant stress and confusion. This is backed with data were the book reports that four major retail chains in the have 75 percent of the grocery market, and one pound in every eight spent is in the retail giant Tesco. Well this overpowering omnipotence of the retail industry had led to fierce competition with individual retailers or minor retail stores crushed to close down. There is constant fight and struggle to keep up profit margins and stay abreast of competition, which makes Dawson's statement true. ... Below is a table that reflects the diminishing share in the grocery sales of individual retailers in this competition over the recent years. The table will talk volumes of the struggle the giant retailers and medium sized establishments are undergoing. The data reported is from the Competition Commission organization in the report of 'Overview of UK grocery retailers' The table is a factual of the share in UK's grocery sales for the different retailers in the country. The Verdict data series used in the table and provides relative sales shares of all the retailers and that of small retailers represented as others. Grocery sales share of UK grocery retailers. 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Tesco 20.2 22.4 23.8 25.4 26.8 27.6 Asda 12.3 12.9 13.3 13.4 13.7 14.1 Sainsbury 12.8 12.5 12.6 12.8 13.4 13.8 Morrisons 3.8 4.2 10.3 9.6 9.7 9.9 Safeway 8.2 7.8 2.4 0 0 0 Somerfield chain 2.9 2.8 3 3.7 4.1 3.9 M&S 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.8 CGL 2.8 3.2 3 2.9 2.8 3.8 Waitrose 2.5 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.3 Iceland 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5 Aldi 0.9 1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 Lidl 1.1 1.1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 Netto 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 Kwik save 2 1.8 1.6 1.3 0.7 0 Others 24.9 22.1 19.6 20 17.4 14.9 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: Verdict UK Grocery retailers 2008, February 2008.( Overview of UK grocery sales ) The row mentioned 'Others' is emboldened to throw light on their diminishing share of business in the grocery sector and ultimately leading to their destruction. Find a pictorial representation below. Looking closely at the figures of the larger retailers, the Year on Year sales numbers increase only at an extremely marginal pace and retailers like Safeway have their numbers freezed

Property Law College Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Property Law College - Case Study Example Also included in the contract were tools that were in the garden shed as you did not think you would need them. However, you now still have a small yard and need some tools. These are not fixtures and you believe that you are able to take them. You and your partner move into the town house holding the property as joint tenants. Sadly your partner dies some weeks after you bought the property. The house is in contract and the townhouse does not have an island bench in the kitchen and client wishes to take the one out of the kitchen in the sold house and move it to the new one. This would mean damaging the floor. Australian law defines a fixture as: " Items such as hot water systems, built-in cupboards, bath, stove, etc" (Australian Real Estate). The common denominator with the afore -mentioned list is that the items cannot be removed from a property without causing damage. Accordingly, since the floor of the house would be damaged upon its' removal, the island bench is considered to be a fixture. When land is transferred with a house, the value of all the tenant's fixtures is now to be included in calculating the unencumbered value of land. This law reverses the Victorian Supreme Court decisions in the Vopak Terminal case (where substantial storage tanks were sold separately to another party) and the Uniqema case (2004) (but only on the issue of tenant's fixtures). Here, the seller has already contracted the sale of the house. The contract price was in part, based upon the value of the house and its' fixture. If the client wishes to depart with the island, they should either re-negotiate the contract or make a concession for the floor repairs (in the purchase price) that will result from removing the island. Additionally, the seller would be well advised to issue a credit towards the purchase price. In no events may the seller simply take the island. Fixtures, according to the Australian courts become part of the land and as a consequence, the realty, and must therefore pass to the buyer with the sale of the property. Some sort of concession must be made either at closing or before closing in order for the seller to not be in violation of his contract. II. What is the legal position in relation to the curtains A leading case in this area is Australian Provincial Assurance Co. Ltd. v. Coroneo. There the Court addressed the removal of theatre chairs, movie projection equipment and a generator seized from a theatre. The court reasoned that that if a chattel is actually fixed to land to any extent, any means other than its own weight, then prima facie it is a fixture; and the burden of proof is upon the person who asserts that it is not. If it is not otherwise fixed but is kept in position by its own weight, then prima facie it is not a fixture; and the burden of proof is upon the person who asserts that it is. Here because the buyer is looking to have the curtains, which are not actually affixed to the land to any extent, he bears the burden of proof. The test of whether a chattel is a fixture was determined by the court to be whether it had been fixed with the inten

Strategic management of healthcare organization Research Paper

Strategic management of healthcare organization - Research Paper Example Health insurance is a hindrance to management of diabetes, normally with dire consequences. Diabetes management costs can be as much as two hundred dollars a month. Adults who are uninsured are less likely to receive care needed for disease management than those with insurance. Meanwhile, those having health insurance have hardships obtaining needed care when there is inadequate coverage. Common place events, most often, lead to adults losing health insurance. These are divorce and change or loss of ones job. Health insurance depends on the applicant’s employment and family status, state of residence, health status, income, and age. Any change in these factors often can and will lead to automatic disruption or change in health coverage. On average, two and a half million Americans lose insurance cover every month (Karen et al 88). It is difficult to regain ones health insurance once revoked (Karen et al 89). Adults suffering from the debilitating disease who apply for health insurance individually are more often than not denied. Many of the victims can not access qualification for Medicare or Medicaid. When there is the availability of new coverage, most of the diabetes patients find the coverage to be inadequate or unaffordable. Adequacy, affordability, and access barriers are redundant and create layers upon layers of hardships which the diabetics cannot overcome. According to studies, when an individual loses health coverage during a period of sickness, it becomes more difficult for them to regain it as compared to healthy people (Karen et al 90). They thus go for long spells of no insurance, which worsens their situation. Policy makers need to act toward making health insurance adequate, affordable, and available. Presence of options regarding health insurance is not a guarantee for health security. More often than not, policy makers attempt to paper over cracks in the health insurance system via the creation of safety net protections, which

From the Top at Carnegie Hall Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

From the Top at Carnegie Hall - Term Paper Example â€Å"We learn that no matter how far from home we are, we always have a home in the things we love†. These are the lines that struck me in the episode; Music is where the heart is. The three young musicians who have their own stories of ups and downs led them where they are right now. In the case of Ronald Joseph for instance, his terrible experience from Hurricane Katrina did not stop him from pursuing his delight. Like what his teacher said, â€Å"You owe it to Katrina†. Oftentimes, the bad things in life are the process of something good that is about to come. For the second part of the episode, 17-year old violist Allyson Tomsky had a different means of showing her enthusiasm. Her love for both music and for her hometown greatly contributed in becoming who she really is. Playing in the streets of New York as one of her practices is indeed a unique way of showing and sharing the talent that she has. Lastly is 14-year old Jazz singer, Nikki Yanofsky who at a very you ng age possessed a very powerful voice and a great confidence toward the thing that she loved. This episode portrayed only but one thing, that as long as we love what we do, we are happy and we’ll always be contented. There will always be the sense of fulfillment no matter what the odds are. Another episode, Family Ties revealed the role of family in shaping and building the vision of our youth.

Compare London by William Blake and Composed Upon Westminster Bridge by William Wordsworth Essay Example for Free

Compare London by William Blake and Composed Upon Westminster Bridge by William Wordsworth Essay William Blake wrote the poem London, set in the 1790s in the aftermath of the French Revolution, it is also the time of the industrial revolution. London is expanding rapidly and poverty is commonplace. It is a time of great wealth existing alongside great poverty. Therefore Blake describes two categories of people. Indeed he uses the most unfortunate sections of society to demonstrate this existence. In verse three he talks about the hapless Soldiers sigh runs in blood down palace walls. From this quotation one would insinuate that Blake is stating the wealthy are building their luxury lifestyles of the suffering of the poor, i.e. V3 The youthful Harlot and V4 The Hapless Soldier. Etc. The diction used in this poem creates an intense mood/atmosphere of depression or suffering, Marks of weakness, marks of woe is used to describe what he meets as he wanders the streets of London. Importantly the repetition of every in the second stanza, is used to emphasise the impact poverty creates on peoples lifes. Spread throughout the entire poem are words which imply that poverty is the dominant lifestyle. V1 Marks of weakness, marks of woe V2 cry, fear, ban, manacles. V3 Cry, blackning, appals, hapless, blood. V4 Curse, blasts, tear, blights, plagues. This clever diction not only sets the mood but effectively influences the readers conclusion or interpretation of the poem. Composed Upon Westminster Bridge by William Wordsworth is written in the form of a sonnet. A traditional format used at that time. It is a fourteen line poem. He opens with a surprising statement, Earth has nothing to show more fair. As most writers at this time would have described the beauty of rural areas. His opinion of the city is the complete opposite to that of Blakes perhaps this is due to Wordsworth viewing the city from a different perspective at a different time of day i.e. early morning. In comparison to London which focuses on the place and its people. Composed Upon Westminster Bridge concentrates on London as a s place. Dull would he be of soul who could pass by a sight so touching in its own majesty. Implies that a person who could pass by without noticing the majestic sight would be without sensitivity. The city is personified in the fourth line of the poem, this city now doth like a garment the personification used in conjunction with the simile of like a garment.. makes the scene much more personal. Wordsworth lists the imposing landmarks in line six, which can distinguishes that he is relating to the wealthily side of London. The air is smokeless which clarifies that it is early morning, before industry begin, maybe this is why he believes that no scene from nature is as splendid as London. Never did sun more beautifully steep, in his first splendour, valley, rock or hill. Ne`er saw I, never felt a calm so deep. From analysing both poems it appears that the significant difference between Composed Upon Westminster Bridge and London is the deeply contrasting description about their place. Two every different opinions are presented, in every different perspectives. Perhaps Wordsworths is a misconception of the reality as he is from the north of England, and viewing London as a wealthy outsider. In the other hand Blake was from London and was not wealthy. Different opinions, different times, different lifestyles are the causes of these two exceptionally differentiating poems. The next two poems I will be comparing are Epic and Shamcoduff both were written by Patrick Kavanagh around the 1940s Kavanagh lived on a small farm in Monaghan close to the border with Armagh. He wrote his early poetry while still working on the farm. Epic tells of the dispute between two farmers over a part of an acre, half a rood of rock. The title is ironic as epic suggests that it would be a grand story involving important events, but it is actually quiet the opposite. Kavanagh compares the small dispute with the great event of Troy which started through a small row. For a time he thought the events of the outside world was more important than his personal life. He compares the year of the Munich bother with the situation and questions himself about which was most important. This suggests that he believes his own lifestyle, position in life and indeed place takes priority over the global affecting events. Kavanagh creates a personal feeling by using names of local town lands such as Ballyrush and Gortin. This creates as sense of familiarity. The concluding line Gods make their own importance implies that men make their own position in life. Which is what I believe he is striving to do with this poem.

Beam Adaptive Algorithms For Smart Antennas Computer Science Essay

Beam Adaptive Algorithms For Smart Antennas Computer Science Essay Smart antennas employed in space division multiple access systems can cater the high demand in terms of capacity in mobile applications without further increase in radio frequency spectrum allocation. Furthermore, smart antennas provide better quality of service (QoS) and better coverage. Therefore, beam adaptive algorithms used in smart antenna systems are of great interests. 1.2 Project Aims The project aim is to study and understand the adaptive algorithms for beamforming for Smart Antenna Systems and to develop research skills, by reading research papers and journal papers related to the topic. Moreover, to produce the technical draft that contains the analysis, results and discussion of several adaptive algorithms employed in Smart Antenna Systems. The research work conducted and a simulation will provide the better understanding of the subject and can be a possible contribution to the existing work. 1.3 Project Objectives The project objective is to attempt systematic comparison of the performance of different Adaptive Algorithms for beamforming for Smart Antenna System. The algorithms that will be under investigation in this project will be training sequence algorithms like Recursive Least Squares (RLS) and Least Mean Squares (LMS), and Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA). Simulations will be done to find out which algorithms are best for beamforming i.e. to form main lobes towards desired user and for convergence rate. The comparison of algorithms will be made on the basis of formation of main lobe and the convergence rate. The effect of jammers in algorithms will also be studied. 1.4 Project Outcomes The outcome of the project is come up with simulation software that will calculate the parameters of Smart Antenna and tell us which algorithm performs better in a particular situation. Moreover to prepare a research report that contains critical analysis different beam adaptive algorithms. 1.5 Structure of the report The first chapter of the final report is the Introduction which describes the motivation for research, project aims and objectives. The second chapter is the Literature review. The overview of recent work conducted in this domain and the brief summary of several research papers studied for conducting this research has been presented. Reading list is appended in the references section. Third chapter is the introduction to antennas and smart antennas. The fundamentals parameters of antennas and smart antennas are briefly described. Fourth chapter is on smart antenna system. Types of smart antennas and their comparison are done in detail. In fifth chapter description about the signal processing algorithms is presented. Lastly given are the results and conclusion. Chapter 2: Literature Review Smart antenna is the most efficient leading innovation for maximum capacity and improved quality and coverage [1]. They can adapt to varying traffic requirements dynamically. Smart antennas radiate narrow beam to serve different users and are normally employed at base stations. The complex weight computations that are based on different criteria are integrated in the signal processor in the form of software algorithms [3]. Due to the rapid growing demand in mobile applications not only for capacity but for high quality of service (QoS) and better coverage without increasing the radio frequency spectrum allocation the wireless systems that uses fixed antenna systems will no longer be in use [3] discuss the need for smart antennas in space division multiple access systems. The article focused on adaptive beam forming approach based on smart antennas the adaptive algorithms that are employed to compute the complex weight are discussed and LMS and RLS in particular. The fact that error c omputed from the filter at time n is used to provide the filter coefficient at time n+1 provides a nontraditional way to understand adaptive algorithms. [2] describe the approach of seeing classical adaptive algorithm like LMS, RLS, CMA, Decision directed) as recursive structures. [4] Explain the normalized least mean square (NLMS) algorithm for smart antenna system. The algorithm was implemented on the StarCore SC3400 DSP core and the performance was evaluated on MSC8144 DSP and the antenna coverage pattern was obtained and analyzed to find towards the desired signal source. With adaptive beamforming algorithm to name LMS for smart antenna the downlink multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) multi-carrier code division multiple access system is proposed [5]. [1] Describes the sequential Studies of beamforming algorithms for smart antenna systems. 2.1 Scope of Smart Antennas Smart antennas assured to award the significant increment in the capacity of system and its performance in the wireless communication system [11]. Which will eventually lead into increase profits for the telecommunications companies and also a decline in blocked and dropped calls. Its been about 45 years Antenna was first used in applications related to radar communication in the form of fixed array. In later years many researches on antenna helped into smart antennas and tiled the way for their uses in commercial wireless systems [12]. These are the main reasons smart antennas got so much interest over the few years. At present the application of smart antennas are predominant at the mobile base stations due to compact area and processing power requirements [13]. Currently, a lot of research is going on the mobile terminal based smart antennas. In the coming future we can expect smart antenna skills to be present at the base station and mobile terminal too. Chapter 3: Introduction to Antennas and Smart Antenna 3.1 Antenna According to IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antenna, it is defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves. 3.2 Fundamental parameters of Antenna The fundamental parameters of Antenna are: Radiation pattern Radiation intensity Directive gain and directivity Power gain and Radiation efficiency Front to Back ratio Antenna beamwidth Antenna beam efficiency 3.2.1Radiation Pattern Radiation pattern show the angular variation of field strength. They are drawn at some distance r proportional to field intensity in the direction ÃŽÂ ¸ and à Ã¢â‚¬  . Normalized Field Pattern: It is obtained by dividing the field component by its maximum value. It is dimensionless. EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) = EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) / EÃŽÂ ¸(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) max Power Radiation Pattern: Power density Pd is defined as power flow per unit area and is given by: Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) =1/2*[E (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  )] 2/ÃŽÂ ·0 Pattern may also be expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle .The normalized power pattern can also be expressed in terms of this parameter as the ratio of radiation intensity U(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) as function of angle to its max value. Pn(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) = Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) / Pd max(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) The co-ordinates are ÃŽÂ ¸ and dB are used to draw the pattern and calculate by following relation: dB= 10log10Pn(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) 3.2.2 Radiation Intensity The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity U. 3.2.3 Directive Gain and Directivity For omnidirectional antenna: the power density at all the points on the surface of a sphere will be same. Pavg = Prad/4à Ã¢â€š ¬r2 The directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density Pd(ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) to the average power radiated. For isotropic antenna, the value of directive gain is unity. The directive gain can be defined as a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) . The ratio of the maximum power density to the average power radiated is called maximum directive gain or directivity of the antenna. GDmax = Pdmax/Pavg 3.2.4 Power Gain and Radiation efficiency The relation between input power and power radiated is given as: Prad=ÃŽÂ ·r Pin ÃŽÂ ·r=Prad/ Pin Pin=Prad +Ploss ÃŽÂ ·r=Prad/(Prad +Ploss) The power radiated and the ohmic power loss can be expressed in terms of r.m.s. current as: ÃŽÂ ·r=Rrad/(Rrad +Rloss) The ratio of the power radiated in a particular direction (ÃŽÂ ¸,à Ã¢â‚¬  ) to the actual power input to the antenna is called power gain of antenna. 3.2.5 Front to Back ratio (FBR) It is the ratio of the power radiated in the desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction. FBR = Power radiated in desired direction/Power radiated in opposite direction FBR depends on frequency of operation, spacing between antenna elements (inversely proportional) and electrical length of the parasitic elements of the antenna. FBR is an important consideration especially in receiving antennas 3.2.6 Antenna Beamwidth Antenna beamwidth is the measure of the directivity of the antenna. The antenna beamwidth is an angular width in degrees. It is measured on a radiation pattern on a major lobe. 3.2.7 Beam efficiency Total beam area ÃŽÂ ©A consists of the main beam area ÃŽÂ ©M plus the minor lobe area ÃŽÂ ©m. ÃŽÂ ©A= ÃŽÂ ©M+ ÃŽÂ ©m So Beam Efficiency is, M= ÃŽÂ ©M/ ÃŽÂ ©A Stray Factor: The ratio of minor lobe ÃŽÂ ©m area to the total beam area ÃŽÂ ©A is called stray factor. Em= ÃŽÂ ©m/ ÃŽÂ ©A EM + Em= 1 3.3 Smart Antenna The smart antenna is defined as an antenna array system that is supported by processing system that deals with the received and transmitted signal by the array using proper array algorithms to advance wireless system performance. [4] Numbers of distributive antenna elements are combined to make arrays of antennas called smart antenna. The different signals collected by individual antenna are calculated in such a manner that increases the signal strength of desired signal and reduces interference from other signals. [12] A smart antenna can be observed as a combination of antennas, whose transmitted or received signals are processed using smart algorithms. These smart algorithms make antenna work efficiently, and reliable in communication [13]. Main purpose of smart antenna is that the signal comes from the source hit the target in that way if the target is moving the antenna is such a smart and intelligent that it would change its direction according to the target movement and the main lobe of the antenna must be toward the target so that the maximum strength of the signal strikes the target. Mostly Smart antennas are being used in wireless communication systems to provide interference reduction and enhance user capacity and the data rates [6]. 3.4 Uses of Smart Antenna Smart antennas are considered useful in the wireless communication systems. The area coverage and the capacity of a system are increased by Smart antennas. Maximum data rate is increased by using smart antennas in multipath and diminish fading due to the terminating the component of multipath. One of its most useful applications is direction finding with the applications including emergency services and traffic monitoring [11]. In areas with less population, extended coverage is predominant in those areas than increased capacity. I such areas the gain provided by the antennas can extend the range covered by a cell and hence more users can communicate with less system capacity than any other typical antenna. It is used for the interference reduction and rejection as well. Finding the location of user will be a useful application of smart antenna, geo-locations of user and to make downlink beam forming easy [14]. Smart antennas are currently used in Radars, Radio astronomy and mostly used in cellular systems to keep the system speed equal with the number of increasing subscribers. It is also used in defense for safe communication purpose. 3.5CHARACTERISTICS OF SMART ANTENNA There are four main characteristics of smart antenna, DOA (direction of arrival) evaluation Beam forming, antenna diversity beam-width 3.5.1 DIRECTION OF ARRIVAL / ANGLE OF ARRIVAL A measure of the direction of the propagation of electro magnetic radiation upon arrival at a receiver; it is the angle between the plan of the phase front and some plan of reference, usually the horizontal, at the receiver antenna. [9] Direction of arrival indicates the direction from which usually a signal arrives at a point [3]. We can guess the direction of arrival of the signal by using different techniques like multiple signal classification. In this technique an algorithm is used to for frequency estimation and the location of emitter, matrix pencil method or their derivatives. [9] Usage Geodesic location or Geo-location of the cell phones is the main application of direction of arrival nowadays [9].Multiple base stations calculate the angle of arrival of the cell phone signal and this information is combined to locate the cell phone anywhere on the earth. It is generally used to locate the pirate or military radio transmission point. In submarines acoustics, angle of arrival is the method to localize objects with active and passive ranging [9]. 3.5.2 BEAM-FORMING Beam forming is a technique of digital signal processing and its is used for directional signal transmission or reception form the preferred signal direction as compared to some undesired direction [3]. It mean that the techniques which we used have the capability to make the radiation pattern of the antenna by constructive and destructive interference for reception and transmission and to accept moving beams in the direction of preferred signal and put nulls in the direction of interfering signals. This mean due to this co-channel and interference reduce and antenna gain is increased in the direction of desired signal [13]. Figure 3.1 These rebounds from different surfaces can set up time delays, attenuations, phase shifts, and distortions that can interfere with each other at the receiver end of the antenna. It can be set by the digital signal processing techniques used in smart antenna system [15]. 3.5.3 ANTENNA DIVERSITY Antenna diversity uses more then two antennas to develop the quality and dependability of a wireless link [3]. Specially in the areas where LOS is not clear between transmitter and receiver. Before reaching at the receiver end signal is reflected along several paths. This result in introducing phase shift, time delays, attenuation, and distortion which results in the interference between signal arriving before and after the particular signal [9].As two or more antennas receive several observations of the same signal they will calculate the most strengthen signal give the output. 3.5.4 BEAM-WIDTH It means the half-power beam-width [7]. The maximum radiation strength is found, and then the points on both side of the maximum, represent half power of the maximum strength are located. The distance between the half power points is known as the beam-width [16].Half of the power expressed in decibels is -3dB, so half power beam-width is often referred to as the 3dB beam-width. We considered both horizontal and vertical beam-widths. [6] 3.6 TYPES OF SMART ANTENNAS There are two major types of smart antenna switched beam smart antenna and adaptive array smart antenna. 3.6.1 SWITCHED BEAM SMART ANTENNA There are different permanent beam patterns presented in switched beam system. A decision is made as to which beam to be taken, at any given point in time, depend upon the necessities of the system [3]. 3.6.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY SMART ANTENNA It allows the antenna to focus the beam to any direction of direction of desired signal continuously ignoring interfering signals. Beam direction can be estimated using the direction of arrival (DOA) estimation methods [3]. 3.7 ADVANTAGES For the most part smart antennas are employed at the base station in the mobile network to improve system capacity. Capacity means the number of the users that can be handled in a system. Using of Omni-directional antennas originate co-channel interference when two users use the same band of frequency that finally limits the user capacity in the system [8]. In case of smart antennas beams are focused towards the desired user minimize interference to other users using the same frequency band. 0: Figure 3.2 It helps against multipath fading noise which improves dependability of received signal. Reduced power consumption for cell phones, low probability of interception and detection improved location estimation and improved range of reception [1]. 3.8 DISADVANTAGE Most major disadvantages of smart antenna is in their design and completion in hardware. Multi RF chains can boost the price and make the transceiver bulkier [4]. Most of the devices in the making of a typical antenna used non-linear devices and using smart antenna also increases the components used. If not checked properly, this affects the performance of the antenna [15]. As the data bandwidth required for the digital signal processing increases with the number of antenna elements used. This can limit the data rate for different applications Chapter 4 SMART ANTENNA SYSTEM 4.1 INTRODUCTION Smart Antenna System is combination of multiple antennas which Transmit or Receive Signals using an Adaptation Algorithm [4]. A smart antenna system is combination of many antennas elements with a signal receiving and transmitting ability to optimize its radiation and reception pattern robotically in reaction to the signal environment [10]. 4.2 TYPES OF SMART ANTENNA SYSTEMS There are mainly two ways to implement antennas that dynamically change their antenna radiation pattern to minimize interference or multipath affects by increasing coverage area and range. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Switched beam: There are finite numbers of fixed patterns which are defined by the system (sectors) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adaptive arrays: There are an infinite number of patterns (scenario-based) which are adjusted in real time The Switched beam approach is easy and simple then the adaptive approach. It increases the network capacity as compared to the usual Omni-directional antenna systems. In this technique, an antenna array produces over lapping beams that cover the neighboring area as in the figure [17]. When a signal is coming and detected, the base station determine the beam that is best associated in the signal-of-interest direction and then switch that beam toward the user for communication [6]. 0: Figure 4.1 [17] The Adaptive array system is efficient then the switched array technique [2]. A mobile user is tracked by this system constantly by routing the main beam towards the destination and at the same time sending no signal in the direction of interfering signals like switched beam. 0: Figure 4.2 [17] 4.2.1 SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEMS Switched beam antenna systems make many fixed beams with finely tuned sensitivity in particular directions [17]. These antenna systems detect strength of signal, choose one from numerous already determined, fixed beams, and switch his beam from one beam to another as the user moves during the sector [11]. The output of many antennas combine through Switched beam systems in such a way that it form finely directional beams with more selectivity than can be achieve with usual, single-element antenna technique. 4.2.1.1 WORKING In this type of adaptive approach in reality did not steer or scan the beam in the direction of the desired signal [17]. Switched beam use an antenna array which radiates a number of overlapping permanent beams covering a elected angular area. The directional beam leads to increase the factor of a frequency reuse in channel by decreasing possible interference and it also increases the range [14]. These antennas system not have a uniform gain in all directions but when they are compared to simple antenna system they have more gain or increased gain in the desired directions. The Switched beam antenna has a switching method that enables the system to select and then switch the desired beam which gives the best response for a mobile user. The selection is generally based on maximum received power for user [9]. 0: Figure 4.3 [3] A usual switched beam system for a base station consists of many antennas with each array covering a certain sector in cell. Take an example of switched beam-forming system below [7]. It consists of a phase shifting network, which forms many beams look in certain directions. The RF switch targets the correct beam in the direction of interest. The measurement for selecting of the correct beam is done by the control logic unit. The control logic unit is controlled by an algorithm which scans all the beams and then selects that beam which is strongest signal based on a measurement calculated by the algorithm. 0: Figure 4.4 [17] This technique is not good when interference is high this technique is simple in operation. Let us consider an example where User 1 is at the side-edge of the beam receiving low power which is entertained by this beam [6]. If there is a second user were at the direction of the null then there will be no interference but if the second user also moves into the direction where user 1 is located then there will be interference occur therefore the switched beam system is suitable where there is no interference [17] 4.2.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY ANTENNAS Switched beam systems only give a limited performance improvement when compared to common antenna systems in wireless communication [3]. Greater improved performance can be achieved by using superior signal processing technique to practice the information achieved by the antenna arrays. The adaptive array system is Opposite to switched beam systems, they are smarter because they are able to react to the changing RF environment. They have a huge amount of radiation patterns as compared to fixed finite patterns in switched beam systems to adjust in the changing radio frequency environment [9]. An Adaptive array is just like a switched beam system which use number of antennas but they are controlled by signal processing [17]. This signal processing moves the radiation beam towards a desired user as he changes his direction and ii limit the interference happen from other users by launch nulls in their directions. This is shown in figure below [17]. http://i.cmpnet.com/embedded/gifs/2005/0503/0503feat1fig2.jpg 0: Figure 4.5 [17] 4.3 COMPARISON Here are the differences between switched bean array and adaptive beam array 4.3.1 SWITCHED BEAM SYSTEM It uses many preset directional beams with slim beam-widths. The necessary phase shifts be provide by normal preset phase shifting networks e.g. the butler matrix [11]. They do not need difficult algorithms, easy algorithms are used for selection of beam It need only reasonable relations between mobile and base station as compared to adaptive array system [15]. Because low technology is used it has minor price and complication. Mixing is easy and cheap into existing cellular system. It give important increase in coverage and capacity compare normal antenna based systems [6]. Since many slim beams are used, normal intra-cell hand-offs occur between beam when a mobile moves from one beam to another [15]. It does not make a distinction between direct signal and interfering signal this leading to undesired improvement of the interfering signal more than the desired signal [6]. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Switched beam systems offers limited co-channel interference control as compared to the adaptive array system. 4.3.2 ADAPTIVE ARRAY SYSTEM A whole adaptive system; moves the beam towards desired signal and put nulls toward interfering signal directions [17]. It is implemented on DSP technology [17]. To steer the beam and the nulls complicated adaptive algorithm is required [6]. Rejection capably of interference is much better then the switching beams system [15]. It is difficult to impose on existing systems, i.e. up gradation is hard and costly. Since nonstop moving of the beam is required as the user moves, high contact between the mobile and base station is required [17]. It provides improved coverage and improved capacity because of improved interference elimination as compare to the Switched beam. It can either decline multipath components or add them by correcting the delays to improve the signal quality[6]. 4.4 ANTENNAS SMARTNESS Smart antenna systems using these adaptive systems are quite smart in the true sense and that is why they are referred as smart antennas [17]. The smartness of these systems is due to the intelligent processor using digital processing techniques which are integrated in these systems. These signal processing techniques use complex algorithms which are our main concern in our project [11]. As modern world is using advanced technology in different fields, smart antenna also comes with such type of digital formation algorithms that operate the signals in accurate and flexible manner. On the way to the smart antenna, the signal is received, converted and modulated for transmission into digital signal and at the other end it is reconverted in analog information [5]. 4.4.1 BASIC MECHANISM There are a lot of function a smart antenna can perform on the bases of techniques used for desired scenario. Some of them major functions smart antenna can perform are listed below First: Smart antenna can locate the direction as well as the angle of arrival of all the incoming signals [16]. Whether they are interfering in the signal of our interest or they are same signals arriving at the antenna from different directions after reflection from different surfaces. Their direction is estimated by the processing techniques used in smart antennas. Secondly: The signal of our interest can separated from the cluster of all the incoming signals using smart antenna systems. Lastly a beam is moving in the direction of the wanted signal and the user is traced when he moves in the area and placing noting at interfering signal directions by continually updating the weights [17]. It is pretty obvious that the direction of radiation beam of the main lobe in an array depends upon the phase difference between the elements of the array. Thus it is possible to constantly move the main beam in any direction by adjusting the phase difference between the elements. The same concept is used in adaptive array systems in which the phase is tuned to attain highest radiation in the most wanted direction. 4.5 ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM CLASSIFICATIONS The adaptive algorithms can be classify into category base on different approach given below Continuous adaptation: The algorithms based on this technique fine-tune the weights as the arriving data is sampled and continue updating it in such a way that it converges to an finest solution. This approach is suit able when the signal information is varying with time. Examples: The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm and the Recursive Least square (RLS) algorithm [17]. Block adaptation: The algorithms based on this technique calculate the weights depend on the approximation achieve from a temporary chunk of data [3]. This method can be used in a non-stationary situation provided the weights are calculated from time to time. Example: The Sample Matrix Inversion (SMI) algorithm [17]. Reference signal based algorithms: These types of algorithms worked on the principal of minimization of the mean square error between the received signal and the original signal. Hence it is necessary that an original signal is available which has high relationship with the desired signal [17]. Examples: The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm, The Recursive Least square (RLS) algorithm [17]. Blind adaptive algorithms: These algorithms do not want any original signal information. They are generating the necessary ordinal signal from the received signal to get the desired signal. Examples: The Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA). CHAPTER 5ALGORITHMS It is obvious that themselves antennas or not much intelligent to perform such.It is the importance of antenna system which is such clever in aspect of advanced signal processing algorithms. In order to use the smart antenna to its full smart techniques superior and computationally smart algorithms must be used. There are number of algorithms which are optimized and specialized for different smart antenna system and for different scenarios. For this purpose here are the few algorithms we have studied till the day to get a brief idea about the smart antenna systems are given below. LMS (Least Mean Squares) RLS (Recursive Least Squares) CMA (Constant Modulus Algorithm) We will try to give a logical comparison on the performance of different Adaptive Algorithms for beam forming for our Smart Antenna. In this study we have exposed that these algorithms RLS and LMS are best for making beam forming like main lobe towards desired user but they have boundaries towards reject interference. In case of CMA has improved response towards beam forming and it gives improved results for interference rejection, but there is a problem the Bit Error Rate (BER) is greatest and high in case of single antenna element in CMA. It is confirmed that convergence rate of RLS is faster than LMS so RLS is proved the best choice for us. The effect of changing step size for LMS algorithm has also been studied. 5.1 CMA (CONSTANT MODULUS ALGORITHM) CMA is based on those methods which are old but many of them are modified or completely changed techniques. This is popular algorithm and we are using this algorithm for blind adaptive array processing for beam pattern. But there is a problem with this algorithm it has low convergence rate because it is a type of instant gradient searching method depend on performance surface. Later some enhanced algorithms such as orthogonal constant modulus (OCMA) and least square constant modulus algorithm (LSCMA) are proposed [4].OCMA use the Newton algorithm and LSCMA is a type of block-update interactive algorithm. Both use estimation of revision of covariance matrix. This means high calculation complexity and convergence rate is improved. But they will not converge when covariance matrix is positive and singular. Faster convergence rate, constant convergence steps, lower computational complexity and better numerical stability will be achieved with instant gradient searching and conjugate gradi ent algorithm [2]. Conclusion A constant modulus algorithm based on modified conjugate gradient for adaptive array processing. CMA algorithm has the similar performance as high convergence rate algorithm such as LSCMA; there is an advantage that they do not need to perform matrix inversion and its performance is improved then other type of conjugate gradient algorithms 5.2 LMS (Least Mean Squares) and RLS (Recursive Least Squares) An adaptive algorithm has a natural recursive formation even in the case of a limited impulse response modelization. As the error